Adolescence (from the Latin adolescere or ‘to grow into maturity’) is widely understood to mean the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a child into an adult. In this sense it is a period that begins in biology and ends in culture with Steinberg (2010) noting that this period ends “when an individual attains a stable independent role in society”.

Theories of adolescent development

Theories seeking to understand, explain and categorise adolescent development are wide-ranging and (extremely) brief summaries of four are outlined below:

• Theory of cognitive development – Jean Piaget (1936): Piaget is often referred to as the godfather of development psychology. Before Piaget the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children, in fact, think in very different ways to adults. Piaget referred to adolescence as the ‘formal operational period’. In this period young people develop the ability to think abstract ideas and hypothetical situations rather than simply what is in front of them. Abstract thinking allows us to understand concepts that are real but are not visible to us e.g., freedom and religion. This allows adolescents to have expectations of the future, develop moral standards and expectations, to think about ideal situations and become more critical of themselves and peers/family members. And they can also think about potential scenarios and make decisions on their potential outcomes.

• Stages of psychosocial development – Erikson (1950): Erik Erikson saw each development stage in life as a crisis between two competing agendas. In adolescence the crisis is between identity and role confusion. This may, in itself, sound confusing but essentially what he is trying to portray is the balance between developing a unique, individual identity while still be accepting and fitting in. In other words the young person is trying to answer the questions “who am I?” and “where in the world do I fit in?”. As a result, young people in this phase often experiment with different roles and situations to get a sense of direction and identity. This includes religions, sexual and political ideas and actions. If a young person successfully manages this conflict then Erikson deemed they would come out of the phase with a strong sense of self and fidelity. For those who were unable to there would be a continued ‘role confusion’, or ‘identity crisis’, which may result in difficulties with commitment and forming stable long-term relationships, negative mental health and well-being a weak sense of identity and a lack of confidence/self esteem.

• Identity Development Theory – James Marcia (1966): Expanding on Erikson’s theory, Marcia described identity formation during adolescence as involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g., religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles). A comprehensive, short and interesting explanation of this theory can be found here: https://youtu.be/-JrZwmHU9xE?si=wNKyueGNBkBw4Dze

• Adolescence Egocentrism – David Elkind (1967): Elkind identified myths or fables that underpin adolescence thinking:

1. Firstly, the sense of a consistent yet imaginary audience; this is the belief (or myth) that they are always the centre of the attention and their actions, words and appearance are being observed and analysed by others (as much as by themselves). This can result in very self-conscious behaviour and may result in young people finding security in attaching themselves to others and behaviour in the same way as others including listening to the same music, dressing the same way etc.
2. The second myth Elkind referred to is the ‘personal fable’. This is the sense that their life is unique and special and that their problems are unlike any experienced by anyone else at any other time. This can give a sense that others cannot understand them or know what they are going through.
3. Thirdly is the invincibility fable that leads young people to think they are in some way untouchable. In this sense it’s not that they’re unaware of the consequences of certain behaviours but the sense that negative consequences won’t happen to them. Again, this may result in more risk-taking behaviour like unprotected sex, drink driving, drug use, carrying weapons etc.

Adolescent brain development

Drawing on the work of Dan Siegel, Laurence Steinberg and Sarah-Jayne Blakemore there are three aspects of brain development and function that are particulary relevant in the period of adolescence. An overview of these aspects and their potential implications for working alongside young people are outlined below:

1. The plastic brain: During adolescence (and up to the early to mid twenties) the brain is extremely malleable (and sensitive) and is modifying itself from a ‘generalist brain’ to a ‘specialist brain’. In this sense the principles of “use it and improve it” (specialisation) and “use it or lose it” (pruning) are applicable. As many authors point out, this increased sensitivity is both an opportunity as well as a risk: “The brain will never again be as plastic as it is during adolescence. We cannot afford to squander this second opportunity to help young people be happier healthier and more successful. Adolescence is our last best chance to make a difference” (Steinberg 2014: 217). The implications of this plasticity when working with young people include:

• The importance of creating stretch: In order to take full advantage of the brain’s capacity for plasticity the demands we place on the brain must exceed the brains capacity to meet them (like weight training).
• Avoid (where possible) exposure to drugs: Exposure to drugs during adolescence (especially before 15) is far more likely to result in addiction than exposure during adulthood.
• Encourage on-going learning (education improves white matter) and recognise that skills can be lost (including inter-personal skills) without continued use during adolescence.

2. The pleasure-seeking brain: Adolescents are three times more likely to die from a preventative cause reflecting a fact that risk taking behaviour peeks during this age (as does violence, self-inflicted injuries, pregnancy etc). Contrary to Elkind’s theory that this is simply due to a sense of invulnerability, contemporary understanding of the brain highlights that adolescence simply have a much stronger preference for the immediate reward. In other words: “Intellectually adolescents can understand the consequences but emotionally they are less sensitive to them than are other age groups. ” Laurence Steinberg (2014: 69). This is combined with a delay in the brain systems that allow us to counterbalance and keep in check our emotions and impulse a mismatch that Steinberg refers to as “like driving a car with a sensitive gas pedal and bad brakes” (2014: 15). The implications for working alongside young people include:

• Motivation by reward: It’s easier to change an adolescent’s behaviour by motivating them with the prospect of a reward than by threatening them with potential punishment.
• Providing safe opportunities for risk taking e.g. adventurous activities, unsupervised activities that are safely contained.
• Helping young people to develop self-regulation. This includes helping young people develop a range of tools that enable them to step back from high emotion and try to employ reason (e.g. using acronyms such as STOP: Stop, Take a breath, Observe your feelings, Proceed) as well as tasks that require the offset of pleasure to achieve a goal (delayed gratification) and techniques in mental contrasting. ( In mental contrasting young people are encouraged to set a goal, fantasise about achieving the goal, identify a stumbling block, and identify ways to overcome the stumbling block).

3. The peer-geared brain: During adolescence young people move their focus from parental approval to peer approval and consequentially spend more time engaging with friends. Sarah-Jayne Blakemore recognises that teenagers have a ‘hypersensitivity” to social rewards and to social evaluation and particularly to social exclusion. This not only influences a young person’s desire to ‘fit in’ and avoid exclusion (a trait that is heightened in girls rather than boys) but is also a key factor in risk-taking behaviour. In fact, studies suggest that adolescence may not take more risks per se when acting alone but certainly will when acting with friends. “Just by being around their friends adolescents’ heightened sensitivity to social rewards makes them more sensitive to all kinds of rewards including the potential rewards of risky activity” (Steinberg 2014: 98). Implications when working with young people include:

• The power of positive influences: Positive peer influence can be just as powerful as negative peer influences and therefore helping young people to access such networks is extremely important.
• Supporting identity development: Helping young people develop a strong sense of worth, value and agency is key to reducing sensitivity to social pressure.
• Recognising prime times for risk taking behaviour: “The prime time for adolescents’ initial experimentation with alcohol, drugs, sex and delinquent behaviour is not on Friday or Saturday nights but weekday afternoons” (Steinberg 2014: 100)

On the flip side…

It’s important to state at this point that it’s not all negative. As we grow up we also become less focussed on ourselves and more focussed on others including developing our prosocial behaviours. In addition, teenagers are often alive with ideas, energy, spark and creativity with a view that they can change the world. This is exciting and enriching to be around and makes it a privilege to be a part of a young person’s journey and to help guide them through the challenging time of adolescence.

Suggested additional material:

• “The age of opportunity” – Laurence Steinberg (2014)
• “Inventing ourselves: The secret life of the teenage brain” – Sarah-Jayne Blakemore (2018)
• James Marcia’s Adolescence Identity Development – https://youtu.be/-JrZwmHU9xE?si=wNKyueGNBkBw4Dze
• Daniel Siegel: Why Teens Seek Novelty and Danger – https://youtu.be/vGcFqzZYJxQ?si=kPG8JWBiJlEm-lRh
• Sarah Jayne Blakemore and the Islington Community Theatre at the Royal Albert Hall: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPxPs-Sc4tw